ÿþ<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.0 Transitional//EN"> <!-- saved from url=(0050)http://www.strangelove.net/~kieser/Russia/KWC.html --> <HTML><HEAD><TITLE>Clothing in Early Rus</TITLE> <META http-equiv=Content-Type content="text/html; charset=windows-1252"> <META content="MSHTML 6.00.2800.1400" name=GENERATOR></HEAD> <body style="background: url(../Images/redbg.jpg) top left repeat-y; "> <BODY text=#fcce19 vLink=#fff769 link=#ffffff bgcolor=#690000 background="../Images/redbg.jpg"> <TABLE width=100%> <TBODY> <TR> <TD width=100> <TD width=85%> <H1 align=center>Clothing in Early Rus </H1> <CENTER>by Sofya la Rus, Mka Lisa Kies<br><i> Updated 7 April 2007</i><hr width=50%></CENTER> <p> This set of webpages is my attempt to organize my research on early Russian clothing. As such, it is a work-in-progress and the information is incomplete and sometimes contradictory. It is published &quot;on-line&quot; as an invitation for others to share information that I don't have (Thank you!) and to help others who are treading the same ground I already have. <p> It may seem repetitive at times, when I have a paragraph about an item based on Pushkareva, followed by a paragraph with slightly different information from Stamerov. But I have found it useful to indicate where the different information came from, so I can double check it later or make judgements based on the reliability of the source. <p> Since the terminology of ancient clothing is often controversial, authors frequently seem to use different terms for the same garment. This is why I set up the &quot;layers&quot; system of organization, so that similar garments being used in similar ways would be discussed on the same page for comparison. The terms svita and shuba are an example of women's garments that have a lot of similarities and may (or may not) be overlapping terms. <hr> <table width=100%> <td width=55% valign=top> Contents of this page: <ul> <a href=#Research>Research Issues</a><br> <a href=#General>General Notes</a><br> <a href=#Byzantine>Foreign Influences</a><br> <a href=#Class>Class Distinctions</a><br> <a href=#Children>Children's Clothing</a><br> <a href=#Materials>Materials, Colors and Construction</a><br> <a href=#Ornament>Ornament and Jewelry</a><br> <a href=#Changes>Later Changes</a><br> <a href=#Reference>Reference</a><br> </p> </ul> <td width=45% valign=top> Other pages with more detailed information: <ul><A href="KWC.html">Women's Clothing.</A><BR> <a href=KMC.html>Men's Clothing</a><br> <a href=KRCclass.html>Class Distinctions</a><br> <a href=KRCregions.html>Regional Distinctions</a><br> <a href=KRCsocial.html>Social Functions</a><br> <p> <A href="KRCfabric.html">Fabrics and Furs</A><BR> <a href="KRCfabricdye.html">Colors and Dyes</a><br> <a href="KRCconstruct.html">Garment Construction and Care</a><br> <A href="KRCdecor.html">Decoration and Ornament</A><BR> <A href="KRCjewel.html">Jewelry</A> <BR> <A href="KRCacc1.html">Collars, Cuffs, Voshvy, Borders</A><BR> <A href="KRCacc2.html">Belts, Purses, Gloves, Mittens</A><BR> <A href="KRCfeet.html">Footwear</A><BR><br> </table> </ul> <HR> <a name=Research> Research Issues: <ul>The material culture of early Rus that I will discuss here appears in the historical record in the 10th century, and survives with gradual evolution of styles, until Moscow takes control of the Rus lands in the 15th century. This time span covers the historical periods of Kievan Rus and Appanage Rus (or Rus under the Mongols). My primary interest is in the late 13th and early 14th centuries, a time of irritatingly poor documentation it seems. (Hence the use of information from the 10th-15th centuries.) <p> The study of the ancient Russian clothes has been conducted mainly by archaeologists. Intact objects of clothing from the 9th to 13th centuries until our time are not preserved, and main sources serve remains of clothes and embellishments, found in excavations of the ancient Russian settlements and burials, and also images on ancient frescoes, icons, princely illustrations that is miniatures, and objects of applied art.&nbsp; These materials are matched with mentions of clothing in written documents and narrative sources: chronicles, saints lives, and various types of reports.&nbsp; They can give researchers also matching ancient scenes and finds with more later objects of clothing and folk art, in details from embroidery, carvings and murals right up to the nineteenth to twentieth centuries. (Rabinovich re: 9-13th) <p> The clothing of Russian population of the European part of our country in the course of four plus centuries, from the second half of the 13th to the beginning of the 18th cent., has been studied unevenly. Best studied of all is the 17th cent., a bit worse, the 16th, and even less the 13th-15th centuries. All together, each of these three periods has not only their own pieces of research concerning clothing of one or another social class or territorial group and separate categories of fabric and dress, but also summary works, devoted to clothing of ordinary peasants, city dwellers and higher levels of society for the whole period (Zabelin, 1862, 1869; Bartenev, 1916; Savvaitov, 1896; Prokhorov, 1881; Bazilevich, 1926). A few of these (Arthsihovskij, B.G.; Gilyarovskaya, 1945; Levinson-Nechaeva, 1954; Gromov, 1977) appeared in the last 3-4 decades. One can say, that on the whole Russian clothing of the 13-17th centuries has been studied sufficiently. And all the same there remains still much that is the so-called blank spot. In the past, not always was managed exact attribution of one or another terms, to give a clear idea of the cut or function of several items of clothing,  to tie in names found in sources to concrete preserved pieces of costume. Not always succeeded, as will be shown below, even to precisely clarify the origin either of separate items of clothing, or of its whole composition. (Rabinovich) <p> Rabinovich says, regarding the 13th-17th centuries: the most reliable sources appear the authentic clothing, preserved until our day in various repositories. Here in the 1st place, the collection of the government museums of the Moscow Kremlin (For Armory Palace and Patriarch s vestry), the State Historical Museum in Moscow, the State Hermitage and State Museium of the Ethnography of the Peoples of the USSR in Leningrad [now St. Petersburg]. A relatively small number of objects of ancient Russian clothing are kept in regional local museums. The overwhelming majority are clothing, shoes and headdresses of the 17-18th centuries. Very rarely (if one does not consider church vestments) clothing of the 16th cent., however it is possible, that a few objects of civilian clothing preserved in the collections of the 17th cent. were made already in the 16th cent. Exactly dated are only a few objects found in graves: the monastic schema of Ivan the Terrible, the shirts of his sons, Ivan and Feodor Ivanovich, and the shirt of prince M.V. Skopina-Shujskij, and also the shirt, in which was dressed the doll placed in the grave of the divorced wife of Vasilii III, Solomina Saburova (Koshlyakova, 1976; Veksler et al, 1973, p. 182; Vidonova, 1951; Rabinovich, 1965b, p. 284). Known also is the volosnik from the grave of a tsaritsa in the Ascension Monastery and a few other archeological finds, about which we will speak in their turn. We note here, that in the whole, the archeological clothing material gives for examination in this period rather a lot, but all the same relatively less than for the time earlier, for which it sometimes appears to be the only source. (Rabinovich) <p> Probably, a more important indication is the various forms of written sources, the number of which increases from century to century. We note that especially great materials about clothing can be found in wills, descriptions of dowries, marriage contracts, and in merchants expense books. The first of these three types of documents enumerate commonly the majority of the set of various garments and with these one can collect rather precise data. In wills and marriage contracts, is mentioned sometimes even a whole wardrobe. Much information is kept in inventories of tsarist property. Considerable value is presented in writings of traveler-foreigners, because in them is preserved often special descriptions of clothing and the general appearance of Russians. The keenness of observation of the foreigners, surprised by the unusual costume of a foreign land, compensates for their weak knowledge of local terms. For all the abundance of information of written sources it is still far from complete for the territorial and chronological relationships. (Rabinovich) <p> A special group of sources consists of different types of portrayals  book miniatures, pictures of contemporaries, different forms of papers [?;8AB:8], icons, portraits. Researchers long ago showed the reliability of these portrayals (particularly miniatures) (Artshikhovskij, 1944; Podobedova, 1965). (Rabinovich) <p> We wish to warn readers of the necessity of somewhat more strict criticism of illustrations in the works of foreigners visiting Russia, where along with very accurate reproductions occur also drawings imprecise and even fantastical. (Rabinovich) <p> Great difficulty arises with attempts to compare written, physical and pictorial sources, because not clearly to which item of clothing relates one or another name. Here a great help for researchers is provided, for example, by textbook type of illustrations of primer books, where sometimes directly correlated name of object and its picture. This can be compared with preserved reality. (Rabinovich) <p> </ul> <a name=General> General Notes: <ul> Clothing in early Rus', as in other cultures, reflected societal norms, and the individual's originality and conception of beauty, and indicated rank, wealth, profession, family status and locality. (Pushkareva97) <P>Early clothing styles were influenced by the close connections with Byzantium and other cultures. Cut was simple, free-flowing, full but not too wide, and long but not as long as in Byzantium. Nearly all clothing was put on over the head because it didn't open all the way down the front. The clothing also usually lacked large front closures. (Kireyeva)<P> The climate of Rus was quite cold. Long winters and cool summers made closed up clothing with many layers and furs practical. (Kireyeva) </ul> <P> <a name=Byzantine>Foreign Influences: <ul> Other cultures to reference to help understand early Russian clothing include Byzantine, Central and Southeast Asian, Scandinavian, Finnish and Western European. <p> Pre-revolutionary researchers of ancient Russian miniatures and frescoes usually drew direct analogues between princely garments and Byzantine fashion of 10-11th cent. They even gave Byzantine names to articles of Russian clothing. Of course, the acceptance of the orthodox form of Christianity by the Rus would have substantially widened cultural contacts of Rus and Byzantium and, consequently, contributed to imitation of several elements of costume. But ancient Russian costume, including that of the ruling class, was not borrowed [at least not exclusively from Byzantium]. (Pushkareva89) <P>The portrayal of the mother of Yaropolk Izyaslavich in the Trirskoj Psalter is similar to portrayals of the high-ranking of Byzantine courts, but fresco painting, princely miniatures, and ornaments followed established canons. Archeological materials, allow one to judge about the costume from a different source, but have been preserved extremely little. But what has survived to the present, shows that the costume of the ancient Rus in 10-11th cent showed not so much a complete borrowing from Byzantium, but changes of several traditional forms already existing among eastern slavs. In frescos, the &quot;cannonized&quot; garments of princesses have only turned down collars (influence of Byzantine tradition). But among material remains of women's clothing of 12th cent. frequently are found a different type of ancient Russian collar - standing. In addition, examples of embroidery have survived that allow us to pay attention to traditions of certain designs. The motifs are noticeably different from the usual Byzantine ornament. (Pushkareva89) <p> Rus had close political, economic, and cultural ties with the Byzantine empire which had a noticeable (but fiercely debated) affect on the form of clothing in Ancient Rus, particularly for the upper classes. The Rus rulers, even as they converted their people to Byzantine Christianity, took great pains to maintain their autonomy from Constantinople. <p> At the same time, Rus was not isolated from Europe. The possible Viking origin of the Rus rulers, the interaction with Finnish neighbors in the north, and trade and even intermarriage with Western Europe meant that clothing in Rus was not completely isolated from styles in the rest of Europe. Western woolen fabrics were valued in Rus. And the clothing of this period is quite similar to the Romanesque styles of the rest of Europe such as Carolingian, Viking, and Norman. (Of course, they were all influenced by the glory of Byzantium.) <p> The Mongol conquest in the 13th century was the most obvious example of Asian steppe influence on Rus, but it was not the first (Scythians, Huns, Polovtsians, etc.), nor the last (Turkic, TransCaucasus). Some authors argue that the Mongol yoke paralyzed Russian culture, while others insist that the negative effects of Mongol rule have been greatly exaggerated. </ul> <P> <HR> <a name=Class> Class Distinctions: <ul>The class and wealth was indicated in the clothing of 10th-15th century Rus by the fabric treatment, not in the cut. The outer garments were the primary place to display the owner's wealth. (Pushkareva97) <p> Peasants, city dwellers and nobles wore identically cut shirts, but for the latter, fine fabrics were used. (Rabinovich 9-13th) </ul> Peasant Costume: <ul>The costume of ancient Russian peasants in 10-15th cent. was based on the rubakha (sorochka). An obligatory part of the peasant's garment was the belt. (Pushkareva89) The richer a village inhabitant was, the more prominent were all kinds of ornament, the higher the quality of their manufacture, and the more expensive the utilized materials, especially for holidays. (Pushkareva89) <P>Peasants wore earrings, beads, priveski, copper bracelets and perstni (finger rings) and porshni or lapti on their feet. (Pushkareva89) and (Kolchin) </P></ul> City-Dwellers <ul>The composition of the costume of ancient Russian city dwellers was more complicated and included greater number of items. The number of garments depended on the season and material circumstances of the family. The clothing of the representatives of the feudal nobility also had more items of each of the types of clothing, and the costume was built of a greater number of components and layers. In the garb of noble city dwellers, royalty and boyars were used expensive, most often imported, fabrics. (Pushkareva89) <P> The headdress of city dwellers of all classes (koruny for maidens and kiki with povoyami for married women) in form had much in common with peasants, which were determined by its rural origin, however decorating was complex, intricate. (Pushkareva89) <P> In distinction from peasants - city dwellers and the representatives of the ruling class were &quot;all in boots&quot;. The leather shoes of the 10-13th cent. - porshni, soft shoes, &quot;half boots&quot; and boots without heel and stiff base - were cut simply and crudely, but then brightly colored. (Pushkareva89) <P>In general, the garments of the upper classes had more detail than those of the lower classes. (Pushkareva97) <P>Aristocratic ceremonial clothing also demonstrated wealth with multicolored cloth, silver and gold embroidery and expensive furs. One princess owned a red coat lined with fox fur when a single fox pelt worth was more than a silver ruble - a year's pay for a peasant. (Pushkareva97) </P></ul> <HR> <a name=Children> Children's Clothing: <ul> About children s clothing in the 9th-13th century, information is very little. Judging by what we said about the ponyova and tribal ornaments, rural girls, and possibly also city girls, went about in one shirt [rubashka]. Some later information allows us to suppose that also little boys, until reaching full maturity, did not wear pants (Maslova, 1956, page 555), consequently they also went in one shirt [rubashka]. But a young prince was dressed just as the adults only without the korzna [cloak] (at least so he is depicted on the miniature from the Izbornik of Svyatoslav) (see p. 1 of the colored insert). (Rabinovich) <p> One important difference in urban clothing by the 13-17th cent. was the clear evidence of clothing specifically for children. The opinion of researchers about this, is that a unique garment of children of both sexes was a long rubakha, based, probably, on study of peasant clothing of later time and on one statement of A. Olearij. In Ladoga in 1634 this traveler was astonished that  all  both girls and boys  were in short-cut hair, with curls, haing from both sides, and in long rubakhas, such that never were distinguished boys from girls . About this same says also several depictions about which will discuss ahead. But in written sources of the 17th cent., we find not only  rubashki child s or  child s [@520GL8 vs 45B8==K5], but also  two kaftantsa valuable children s . And  shuba sheepskin child s new and even  tafejka [skullcap?] childs broadcloth red . True, these records are rare and usually related to wealthy families, but all the same, one must think that if children of peasants and the urban poor darted about in one rubashka, that for children of nobles and generally wealthy people were sewn clothing in general the same as for adults. Regarding shoes, one can say more definitely, because finds of children s shoes among archeological excavations are frequent. For children were sewn the same boots as for adults, but obviously, smaller in size. In excavations, therefore, one can find, for example, the front of a large men s boot, from which was cut out a small child s sole. (Rabinovich) <p> Childrens clothing was recommended by the Domostroi to sew for growth:  the edges [:@>OG8] turn up a vershok [about 2 inches] or two or three at the hem and along edges and along seams and along sleeves, and as grows out the years 2 or 3 or 4, opening the seam of that garment and turning it out straight again becomes good . (Rabinovich) <p> </ul> <hr> <a name=Materials> Fabrics and Furs:<ul> The primary fabrics used were wools and linens (including hemps), as with the rest of Europe in the middle ages. (Kireyeva and Stamerov) <p> The holiday costumes of peasants and everyday clothing for nobility were made of linen fabrics with printed patterns and from multi-colored cloth. (Kireyeva and Stamerov) <p> Fine imported fabrics (pavolok) were reserved for outer garments and festival costumes. The main imported fabrics were taffeta, brocade, stamped velvet, golden velvet (velvet embroidered with gold thread). (Kireyeva) <p> Fur was used extensively. Winter clothes were lined with it, and trims and edgings were made of it. Peasants used wolf, fox, bear, rabbit, squirrel and especially sheepskin. Nobility enjoyed beaver, otter, sable, and marten. (Stamerov) </ul> Color:<ul> The clothing of Rus was very colorful, although, the raw color of unbleached linen predominated in peasant clothes. White would also appear in various parts of the costume. Linen could be dyed, especially if intended for the nobility, and is called  krashenin . Colors included blue, green and red. Of course, the imported fabrics came in all the colors appropriate for their origin. <p> For more information see the <a href=KWCfabric.html>Fabric and Color Page</a>. </ul> <HR> <a name=Ornament> Ornament and Jewelry in General: <ul> Clothing would be decorated with embroidery, silk, sequins and pearls. Small river pearls were available in generous quantities in the rivers of Rus. Clothes were also often trimmed in fur. The primary finishing trim of garments in all periods was an edging of colored fabric. <P> See <a href=KWCdecor.html>Decoration and Ornament Page</a>. <p> However, ornaments worn over the clothes, called  navesni , predominated. These included collars, cuffs, borders, belts, appliques, bracelets, beads, earrings, and rings. (It was later, in the Muscovite Rus period, that costumes came to be made of elaborate fabrics that were then extravagantly covered in rich silk embroidery, metal threads, couching, and pearls.) <p> See <a href=KWCacc.html>Accessories Page.</a> <p> The jewelry on heads, hands, necks and waists displayed wealth and served as amulets agains the &quot;evil eye.&quot; To this end, much of the early jewelry was designed to make noise, the better to scare away evil spirits. (Pushkareva) <P> Peasant jewelry was of copper, bronze or low-grade silver. Noble jewelry was of silver, and sometimes gold. <p> See <a href=KWCjewel.html>Jewelry Page.</a> </ul> <hr> <a name=Underwear>Underwear: <UL> Natelnaya odezhda, next-to-the-skin clothing, is a somewhat difficult topic for re-enactors. We have difficulty thinking of doing without our accustomed modern underpinnings. But I have been able to find little information about any parallel items in early Rus. <p> In discussing this topic for the period of the 9th-13th centuries, Rabinovich says that the term "rub" while indicating a piece of fabric, also apparently referred to the set of ordinary clothing consisting of the shirt and narrow pants. He concludes that this ancient Russian root gave rise to the "rubakha", a next-to-skin garment that survives today. The rubakha or sorochitsa were for many the only object of clothing. (Rabinovich) </ul> <hr> <a name=Changes>Changes over time: <ul> In the 14-15th cent. the basic loose, stepped silhouette of clothing changed little but new garments to achieve this silhouette were worn by the nobility and city-dwellers. Innovation affected the attire of rural inhabitants least of all. (Pushkareva89) <P>The favorite color of clothing traditionally remained red and the belt remained a necessary accessory. (Pushkareva89) <P>The shoes at the end of the 15th cent. became significantly more complex in cut and design with openwork appearing, along with composite manufacture. In the 14-15th cent. little composition leather heels became the favorite shoes of city- dwellers and nobility. (Pushkareva89) <p> After the escape from Mongol rule in the 15th century and as the period of Muscovite Rus begins, clothing in Rus began to evolve more rapidly, and become more diverse and intricate. Nobles began to wear several layers of clothing at once as a sign of status, regardless of the season. Garments began to open all the way from the top to the bottom. (Kireyeva) (It should be noted that Stamerov says that such garments began to appear in the mid-13th century. This earlier date is supported in the period images I've seen.) <p> The zipun replaced the svita, but had a very similar form, although shorter. Kaftans of several forms came to be worn by the upper classes over the zipun. (Kireyeva) Over the kaftans could then be worn the feryaz, okhaben, opashen, or odnoryadka for appropriate occasions. <p> Hats became more diverse, but were generally conical like the kolpak. The tafya, skull cap, was often worn at home. (Kireyeva) <p> In the 13th-17th cent., the traditional ancient folk clothing changed mostly as a result of processes in the 9-13th cent. From the pan-Slavic features was preserved only a little (the tunic-shaped rubakha, some types of shoes). The old tribaldistinctive features of eastern Slav costume were disappearing, and in the 14-15th cent. these distinctions (prmimarily in women s holiday finery) disappeared completely. In the 15th cent. are no longer met rich temple rings, nor ozherel e of the characteristic tribal beads, nor the corresponding finger rings. Approximately in the 15th to beginning of the 16th cent. developed a new type of women s costume, connected with the spread of the sarafan, the origin of which, as already said, is extremely complex. In all probability, correct are researchers who consider that along with the development of elements of traditional women s costume here one can see also the influence of the peoples of Eastern and Western Europe, in particular the Volga region and the Pre-Baltic. However, one should never ignore that the set of clothing with the sarafan in particular strongly was spread in cities (even in the southern have of Eruopean Russia, where the village population firmly kept the set of clothing with the ponyova), then as peasants assimilated the sarafan primarily in northern sections settled by Russians. Analogous influences of clothing with shoulder straps are seen in the polikovaya [?] rubakha. Influence in the area of traditional women s costume was mutual, in that it shows, fore example, Russian names of many parts of the costume for the people of the Volga region and the Pre-Baltic. (Rabinovich, 13-17th) <p> In the 13th-17th cent., as a whole, ancient clothing was preserved everywhere as under wear  the tunic-shaped sorochka, tunic-shaped men s rubakha and narrow porty. Also national in cut were also the upper rubakha (men s and women s), and complex women s headdress. (Rabinovich, 13-17th) <p> Much more was novel in upper indoor and outdoor clothing. There appeared many new varieties of clothing and men s headdress. But this concerns, for the most part, people of the wealthy ruling classes and those close to them (including, as we saw, servants). (Rabinovich, 13-17th) <p> The very names of the valuble materials from which was sewn this toilet  some of western, some of eastern origin. The names of the overwhelming majority of new upper clothing termsare eastern: Turkic (Turkish, Tatar), Iranian, Arabian. For example, such concerns age-old Russian dress, like the shuba, bearing an Arabian name (dzhubba  upper garment with long sleeves). One can think that several other eastern names were spread on ancient Russian clothing (we already spoke, for example, about the possibility of the spread of the name  kaftan on the ancient Russian common people s  svita ). But undoubtedly, eastern influence had a significant place in the clothing of the ruling classes, widespread after the Tatar-Mongol conquest and especially strong in the 15th cent. It is indicated, probably, most clearly of all in the manner of wearing the taf ya  skullcap, and in the custom of women outside to cover the face with a scarf (but this was by no means the eastern Muslin veil). However, this sort of change even for the ruling classes concerned only the upper clothing. The tsar himself wore a rubakha of the same cut as even a peasant, although this rubakha was of valuable material and embroidered with gold. (Rabinovich, 13-17th) <p> See <a href=KWCmosc.html>Notes on Muscovite Rus</a>. </ul> <hr> <a name=Reference>Selected References: <ul> <li>Artsikhovskij, A.B. and B.A. Kolchin. "@C4K >23>@>4A:>9 @E5>;>38G5A:>9 -:A?548B88 [Works of the Novgorod Archeological Expedition, Volumes II and IV] No. 65 and 123 of <u>0B5@80;K 8 AA;54>20=8O ?> @E5>;>388 !!! .</u> USSR Academy of Science. Moscow. 1959 and 1963. [UofI Shelf No. fDK30 .M30. Portions are also available on-line at <a href=http://www.archeologia.ru/Library/announce> http://www.archeologia.ru/Library/announce</a>] <li>Bykov, Alexander and Olga Kuzmin. Translated by Lisa Kies. <u>Costume of Russian Merchant, Novgorod XV Century.</u> <a href=PartizanMan.html> www.strangelove.net/~kieser/Russia/PartizanMan.html</a> . <li>Bykov, Alexander and Olga Kuzmin. Translated by Lisa Kies. <u>Female City Costume, Novgorod XV Century.</u> <a href=PartizanWoman.html> www.strangelove.net/~kieser/Russia/PartizanWoman.html</a> . <LI>Kireyeva, E.V. Translated by Tatiana Nikolaevna Tumanova. <U>The History of Costume.</U> Enlightenment, Moscow, 1970. <li>Kolchin, B.A. and T.I. Makarova. <u>Drevnaia Rus, Byt i Kultura.</u> (Ancient Rus, Life and Culture) Publishing House  Nauka . Moscow, 1997. [ISBN 5-02-010174-5. Shelf # fDk72 .D737 1997 at U of Iowa.] <LI>Pushkareva, Natalia. Translated in part by Lisa Kies. <U>Zhenshchiny drevney Rusi.</U> 1989. <a href=pushkareva.html> www.strangelove.net/~kieser/Russia/pushkareva.html</a> . <LI>Pushkareva, Natalia. Translated by Eve Levin. <U>Women in Russian History.</U> M.E. Sharpe, Armonk, New York, 1997. <li>Rabinovich, M.G. Translated in part by Lisa Kies. <u>@52=OO 45640 0@>4>2 >AB>G=>9 2@>?K</u> Nauka, Moscow, 1986. <a href=rabinovich86a.html>Chapter 3</a>, <a href=rabinovich86b.html>Chapter 4, Part 1</a>, <a href=rabinovich86c.html>Chapter 4, Part 2</a> <LI>Stamerov, K.K. Translated by Tatiana Nikolaevna Tumanova. <U>An Illustrated History of Costume.</U> Avenger, Kiev, 1978. <li>Tolmachoff, Eugenia. <u>Notes on the Costume of Women of the Court and Higher Classes in Russia in the XVI and XVII Centuries.</u> from the On-Line Digital Archive of Documents on Weaving and Related Topics. <a href=http://www.cs.arizona.edu/patterns/weaving/articles/nb51_cos.pdf> www.cs.arizona.edu/patterns/weaving/articles/nb51_cos.pdf</LI></a> </ul> <hr> <p> COPYRIGHT (c) 1997-2007 by Lisa Kies. You may make copies for personal use and to distribute for educational purposes but only if the article remains complete and entire with original authorship clearly noted. <p> </TR></TBODY></TABLE> </body> </html>